Researchers have developed optimised concrete blends using Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag, Eggshell Powder, and Waste Glass Powder, enhancing both performance and environmental credentials through machine learning predictions.
Researchers have recently developed optimised concrete mixes incorporating Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Eggshell Powder (ESP), and Waste Glass Powder (WGP) to improve both compressive and tensile strength, while simultaneously advancing sustainability in construction. Published in Scientific Reports, the study highlights how these supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs), byproducts of industrial and agricultural processes, can reduce emissions and enhance mechanical properties, providing a promising path towards greener infrastructure development.
It is widely recognised that the construction industry is a significant contributor to global CO₂ emissions, with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) production alone accounting for roughly 8% of these emissions. As urbanisation and infrastructure demands rise, the sector faces increasing pressure to adopt low-carbon alternatives. Integrating SCMs such as GGBS, WGP, and ESP addresses this challenge by partly replacing traditional cement, which is energy-intensive and carbon-heavy to produce.
GGBS, a byproduct of the iron-making industry, is already noted for its environmental and performance benefits. It has latent hydraulic properties that enhance durability and long-term strength through the promotion of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), which is key to concrete’s structural integrity. Studies show that incorporating GGBS in concrete not only yields a lighter-coloured finish and reduces efflorescence but also significantly decreases carbon footprints by lowering cement content, thus lessening the embodied carbon of concrete mixes.
Waste Glass Powder contributes to strength via its pozzolanic activity, stimulating C-S-H formation and improving mechanical strength. Meanwhile, Eggshell Powder, when used in moderation, enhances particle packing and early-age strength due to its fine particle size, though excessive addition can dilute the binder and negatively impact performance. Collectively, these SCMs create a balanced mix that both improves concrete’s mechanical robustness and sustainability credentials.
The experimental methodology involved preparing 64 unique concrete mixes, varying GGBS content from 0 to 30%, ESP from 0 to 12%, and WGP from 0 to 15%, while maintaining a binder-to-aggregate ratio of 1:1.5:3 and a water-to-binder ratio of 0.50 in line with ASTM standards. The samples were tested for workability using slump tests and evaluated for compressive and split tensile strength after 28 days of curing.
Results demonstrated that GGBS replacement at 10–20% consistently enhanced compressive strength, while the most effective mix (coded M39) combined 20% GGBS, 4% ESP, and 10% WGP. This mixture achieved the highest compressive strength of 24.7 MPa and tensile strength of 2.77 MPa. Workability improved with GGBS and WGP additions but tended to decrease at higher ESP levels due to increased water demand from finer particles.
Crucially, the study incorporated machine learning (ML) techniques, using Gradient Boosting Regressor (GBR) models to accurately predict compressive and tensile strength outcomes. This approach achieved a high coefficient of determination (R²) of 0.937 for compressive strength and 0.906 for tensile strength. SHAP (Shapley Additive Explanations) analysis identified ESP as the most influential predictor on strength outcomes, highlighting the nuanced interplay of these materials.
The practical implications of this work are significant for the construction industry’s transition towards sustainability. By utilising waste and byproduct materials, these optimised mixes reduce reliance on cement, thereby lowering CO₂ emissions and raw material costs. These mixes show potential for structural applications such as beams, slabs, and columns, combining reliability with environmental benefits. Moreover, the integration of ML accelerates mix optimisation, minimizing resource-intensive trial mixes and testing.
Further context from existing studies validates these findings. Research has documented that high-volume GGBS leads to improved long-term compressive strength, reduced heat of hydration, and increased durability through densified microstructures with lower permeability. However, excessive GGBS can retard initial hydration rates, potentially slowing strength gain. Additional analyses suggest GGBS enhances workability due to finer particles and reduces chemical risks such as alkali-silica reactions, beneficial for large or mass concrete pours.
While the current research focuses primarily on 28-day mechanical properties, future investigations should examine long-term durability, microstructural interactions (using techniques like scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction), and performance under varied environmental stressors. Such data are vital for broader industry adoption and validation of SCM-blended concretes in real-world conditions.
In summary, this study contributes valuable knowledge towards more sustainable concrete technologies by demonstrating how GGBS, ESP, and WGP can be strategically combined and optimised using machine learning. The results align with broader trends emphasizing circular economy principles in construction materials , repurposing waste, reducing emissions, and maintaining structural integrity to meet the sector’s pressing decarbonisation goals.
- https://www.azobuild.com/news.aspx?newsID=23948 – Please view link – unable to able to access data
- https://www.azobuild.com/news.aspx?newsID=23948 – Researchers have developed optimized concrete mixes using Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), Eggshell Powder (ESP), and Waste Glass Powder (WGP) to improve compressive and tensile strength. Published in Scientific Reports, the study explores how these supplementary materials can enhance concrete’s mechanical properties while promoting sustainable construction practices. The research addresses carbon emissions in construction, as the industry is a major contributor to global CO₂ emissions, with Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) production alone accounting for roughly 8% of the total. By incorporating GGBS, WGP, and ESP—byproducts of industrial and agricultural processes—the study aims to reduce emissions and improve concrete performance. GGBS enhances durability and long-term strength through its latent hydraulic properties, WGP promotes the formation of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H), contributing to strength development, and ESP, when used in moderation, improves particle packing and early-age strength due to its fine particle size. The study prepared 64 unique mix designs varying the content of GGBS (0–30%), ESP (0–12%), and WGP (0–15%), with a constant binder-to-aggregate ratio of 1:1.5:3 and a water-to-binder ratio of 0.50. Testing included workability (via slump tests) and mechanical strength evaluations, specifically compressive strength (ASTM C39) and split tensile strength (ASTM C496) after 28 days of curing. The results showed that using SCMs in combination had clear effects on performance. Compressive strength across the mixes ranged from 15.5 MPa to 24.7 MPa, while split tensile strength ranged from 1.8 MPa to 2.77 MPa. GGBS was particularly effective at 10–20% replacement, consistently improving strength by encouraging C-S-H formation. The best-performing mix, designated M39, combined 20% GGBS, 4% ESP, and 10% WGP, achieving the highest compressive and tensile strengths: 24.7 MPa and 2.77 MPa, respectively. The study also integrated machine learning models to predict strength outcomes based on variables such as water-to-binder ratio, cement content, and curing time, streamlining the optimization process and reducing the need for excessive experimental trials. The findings offer tangible insights for real-world application, suggesting that the optimized concrete mixes are suitable for structural elements like beams, slabs, and columns, providing strong performance while reducing environmental impact. By partially replacing cement with SCMs, the industry can significantly reduce its carbon footprint and promote circular economy practices. Repurposing waste materials not only lowers emissions but also reduces raw material costs, making sustainable concrete a more practical option across a range of projects. The study highlights the potential of GGBS, ESP, and WGP as effective cement alternatives in concrete, delivering strong mechanical performance while reducing environmental harm. The integration of machine learning adds another layer of efficiency, allowing for a more targeted mix design with fewer physical tests. Future research should explore how these mixes perform over extended periods and under various environmental conditions, assessing long-term durability and microstructural behavior, which are important factors for widespread adoption.
- https://www.building.co.uk/cpd/cpd-24-2015-introduction-to-ground-granulated-blast-furnace-slag/5078251.article – This article provides an introduction to Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS), highlighting its benefits in concrete production. GGBS is a by-product of iron-making and offers environmental advantages due to its low CO₂ emissions. The article discusses the use of GGBS in concrete to achieve a lighter-coloured finish, improved durability, and reduced efflorescence. It also addresses the sustainability aspects of GGBS, noting that its use can significantly reduce the carbon footprint of concrete production. The article emphasizes the importance of GGBS in enhancing the performance and sustainability of concrete structures.
- https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/11/24/7194 – This study examines the strength, carbon footprint, and cost considerations of mortar blends with high-volume Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS). The research highlights the advantages of using GGBFS in concrete, such as reduced heat of hydration, enhanced long-term compressive strength, and increased durability. It also discusses the potential for high-volume GGBFS as a cement replacement due to its self-cementitious properties. The study notes that while excessive use of GGBFS can retard the hydration process and slow down strength development, various studies have demonstrated satisfactory performance with high-volume GGBFS in different types of concrete. The research underscores the environmental benefits of using GGBFS, as higher amounts of GGBFS replacing cement in concrete lead to a lesser carbon footprint due to lower cement content used.
- https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/40055271/ – This study explores the use of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) and biochar as supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) in concrete to enhance sustainability while maintaining structural performance. The research evaluates the effects of GGBS at 20% and 40% replacement levels, and biochar at 3%, 4%, and 5% by weight of cement, through compressive strength tests at 7 and 28 days, as well as microstructural analyses using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and energy-dispersive X-ray analysis. The findings reveal that GGBS enhances workability due to its finer particles and pozzolanic activity, while aiding long-term strength development. The study suggests that incorporating GGBS and biochar as SCMs can improve the sustainability of concrete without compromising its structural integrity.
- https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/14/14/8783 – This comprehensive review examines the role of Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBS) in concrete production, focusing on its impact on durability, density, chloride attack resistance, and dry shrinkage. The review highlights that GGBS contributes to denser concrete with fewer voids, reducing permeability and enhancing durability. It also notes that increasing the dose of GGBS in ultra-high performance concrete leads to increased resistance to chloride penetration. The study discusses the effects of GGBS on dry shrinkage, noting that higher doses may result in more voids due to reduced workability. The review emphasizes the importance of GGBS in improving the performance and sustainability of concrete structures.
- https://www.cemex.ae/products-services/cementitious/ggbfs – CEMEX UAE offers Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBFS) as a sustainable cementitious material that enhances concrete performance. GGBFS provides improved workability, reduced heat of hydration, and enhanced chemical features, including lower permeability and reduced risk of alkali-silica reaction. The product is suitable for large or mass concrete pours, offering a longer setting time and helping to avoid cold joints. CEMEX emphasizes the environmental benefits of GGBFS, noting its lower embodied carbon, which helps meet sustainability requirements in construction projects.
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The draft above was created using the information available at the time the story first
emerged. We’ve since applied our fact-checking process to the final narrative, based on the criteria listed
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warrant further investigation.
Freshness check
Score:
9
Notes:
The narrative was published on November 28, 2025, and is based on a study titled ‘Machine learning–driven optimization of compressive and tensile strength in concrete with GGBS, eggshell powder, and waste glass powder’, which was published in Scientific Reports on November 28, 2025. This indicates that the content is fresh and original. The report is based on a recent press release, which typically warrants a high freshness score. No discrepancies in figures, dates, or quotes were found. The narrative does not appear to be recycled from other sources. No earlier versions with different figures, dates, or quotes were identified. The article includes updated data and does not recycle older material. Therefore, the freshness score is 9.
Quotes check
Score:
10
Notes:
The narrative does not contain any direct quotes. Therefore, the quotes score is 10.
Source reliability
Score:
8
Notes:
The narrative originates from AZoBuild, a reputable organisation known for publishing news and articles related to construction and building materials. The report is based on a study published in Scientific Reports, a peer-reviewed journal. Therefore, the source reliability score is 8.
Plausability check
Score:
9
Notes:
The claims made in the narrative are plausible and supported by the referenced study. The study’s methodology and findings are consistent with existing research on the use of supplementary cementitious materials in concrete. The narrative does not lack supporting detail from other reputable outlets. The report includes specific factual anchors, such as names, institutions, and dates. The language and tone are consistent with the region and topic. The structure is focused and relevant to the claim. The tone is appropriate for a scientific report. Therefore, the plausibility score is 9.
Overall assessment
Verdict (FAIL, OPEN, PASS): PASS
Confidence (LOW, MEDIUM, HIGH): HIGH
Summary:
The narrative is fresh, original, and based on a recent study published in a reputable journal. It is supported by credible sources and presents plausible claims consistent with existing research. Therefore, the overall assessment is a PASS with high confidence.
